Behind the Scenes: A Day in the Life of a Cosmetic Products Operator

Cosmetics do not magically appear on store shelves. Every cream, serum, shampoo, lipstick, and fragrance has traveled a disciplined path from raw ingredient to finished good. At the heart of that journey is the cosmetic products operator, the production professional who balances safety, quality, speed, and care on every shift. If you have ever wondered what it actually takes to make a skin-friendly, shelf-stable, beautifully packaged product at scale, pull up a chair. This is a clear and honest look at a day in the life of a cosmetic products operator, the machines they run, the checks they perform, and the mindset that keeps quality high and downtime low.

This behind-the-scenes tour blends practical insights with real examples from European manufacturing floors, including Romania. Whether you are considering a role in production, recruiting for your team, or looking to understand how operators underpin brand reputation, you will find actionable tips and a realistic view of the work.

From Clock-in to Cleanroom: How the Day Starts

Most operators begin their shift with a focus on safety, readiness, and handover. A typical start-of-shift sequence looks like this:

1. Clock-in and personal readiness

   • Put on PPE: hairnet, beard cover if needed, safety shoes, protective glasses, and gloves.
   • Remove jewelry, secure loose clothing, and stow personal items.
   • Confirm any special requirements for the day, such as ATEX zones for alcohol-based products or allergen control campaigns.

2. Shift briefing and line allocation

   • Review the production plan: target SKUs, batch sizes, and timelines.
   • Check changeovers scheduled for the shift.
   • Note alerts from maintenance or quality, such as a nozzle replacement or updated torque spec for a new cap supplier.

3. Pre-operational checks

   • Verify that line clearance has been completed and documented. This includes ensuring no leftovers from prior runs remain on the line or in bins.
   • Inspect guards, interlocks, emergency stops, and signage.
   • Confirm cleaning status: CIP (clean-in-place) on mixers, sanitization of filling circuits, and surface disinfection logs.
   • Check raw materials and packaging staged at the line match the batch record and pick list. Scan barcodes if a MES (Manufacturing Execution System) is in place.

4. Batch record review

   • Read the SOP and batch instructions. Confirm setpoints for temperature, mixing speed, vacuum levels, fill volumes, torque values, and tolerances.
   • Identify in-process quality checks and sampling intervals.

With this foundation set, the operator starts up the line and takes responsibility for running to plan without compromising quality.

The Production Environment: Rooms, Utilities, and Safety Zones

Cosmetics manufacturing spans several controlled environments, each with its own standards and utilities.

• Compounding room

  • Used for mixing and emulsification. Often fitted with HVAC to control temperature and humidity, plus HEPA filtration when needed for powders.
  • Utilities include steam or hot water for jacketed vessels, chilled water, vacuum pumps, compressed air, and deionized or RO water.

• Filling and packaging hall

  • Segregated zones for bottles, jars, tubes, and unit cartons. Traffic flow is designed to avoid cross-contamination and mix-ups.
  • Induction sealing and capping may require shielding and lockouts.

• Fragrance and alcohol room (if applicable)

  • ATEX zoning due to flammable ethanol. Explosion-proof lighting and ventilated storage are standard.
  • Grounding and bonding to avoid static discharge during transfers.

• Microbiology and QC labs

  • Perform physical-chemical and microbiological testing. Controlled access, aseptic technique, and validated methods are mandatory.

• Utilities and water treatment

  • RO and deionization skids, UV sterilization, and ozone for loop sanitization. Regular monitoring of conductivity, TOC, and microbial counts.

These environments are governed by ISO 22716 (Cosmetics GMP) and the EU Cosmetics Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009. Operators are trained to follow environmental, health, and safety (EHS) protocols, manage chemical hazards under CLP, and respect REACH restrictions. The result is a clean, safe, and compliant workspace.

The Machines You Drive: Key Equipment on a Cosmetics Line

Operators become fluent in a broad toolkit of machines. Mastery is not just pushing buttons; it is understanding how the product behaves, how equipment tolerances stack up, and how small adjustments ripple through the process.

Compounding and Emulsification Equipment

• Jacketed mixing vessels

  • Heat or cool the batch to setpoints for emulsification or dissolution.
  • Integrated baffles and sweep agitators reduce hotspots and improve homogeneity.

• High-shear mixers and homogenizers

  • Create stable emulsions for creams and lotions. Shear rate and dwell time impact droplet size and texture.

• Vacuum emulsifiers

  • Remove entrained air and minimize foaming. Essential for glossy creams and air-free gels.

• Powder hoppers and vacuum transfer

  • Control dust and improve operator safety when adding powders like pigments, talc, or thickeners.

• CIP skids

  • Recirculate cleaning solutions at validated time, temperature, and flow rates to meet hygiene requirements.

Filling and Sealing

• Piston and peristaltic fillers

  • Piston fillers suit viscous creams and gels; peristaltic fillers excel with low-viscosity or sensitive formulas.
  • Nozzle height, suck-back timing, and temperature control are critical to prevent drips and bubbles.

• Tube fillers and cartoners

  • Handle laminate and aluminum tubes with crimping or heat sealing.
  • Cartoning machines fold and glue unit cartons, often integrating leaflets.

• Cappers and torque control

  • Apply consistent torque to avoid leaks without damaging caps.
  • Use calibrated handheld or in-line torque testers to verify.

• Induction sealers and foil application

  • Create tamper-evident, leak-proof seals on jars and bottles. Induction power and dwell time must match foil and cap specs.

• Labelers and vision systems

  • Apply front, back, wrap, or tamper labels. Vision cameras verify presence, position, and barcodes.

• Checkweighers and metal detectors

  • Confirm fill weights and screen for contamination.

Coding and Traceability

• CIJ, TIJ, or laser coders

  • Print batch numbers, expiration dates, and UFI codes. Print quality is checked at start-up and regularly during the run.

• Scanners and MES terminals

  • Enforce right-first-time component usage and enable electronic batch records.

Utilities and Handling Aids

• Conveyors with accumulation tables

  • Buffer flow between operations to reduce stoppages.

• Lift assists and trolleys

  • Reduce manual handling, especially for drums and tubs.

• Palletizers and stretch-wrapping

  • Prepare finished cases for the warehouse with stable loads and readable labels.

Operators keep this ecosystem balanced, anticipating how viscosity, temperature, packaging tolerances, or upstream variability affect throughput and quality.

Quality Control in Action: Safeguarding Every Batch

Quality is not a department. It is a daily habit. Operators drive quality in three layers: prevention, detection, and correction.

Incoming and Raw Materials Checks

• Verify supplier labels, lot numbers, and COAs (Certificates of Analysis).
• Confirm component compatibility: caps, pumps, and bottles must fit and seal with the actual product.
• For water systems, check conductivity, pH, and microbial counts meet internal specs.

In-Process Controls

• Viscosity

  • Measured with a Brookfield viscometer at defined spindle speeds and temperatures.
  • Viscosity out of spec? Adjust temperature or shear. Record the intervention per SOP.

• pH

  • Use a calibrated pH meter. Drift may signal improper neutralization or raw material variation.

• Appearance and odor

  • Compare to retained standards under consistent lighting. Watch for phase separation, color drifts, or off-notes.

• Fill volume and weight

  • Start-up checks at n=10 or as specified. Ongoing checks every 30-60 minutes, or at frequency defined by the control plan.

• Torque and seal integrity

  • Verify cap torque and induction seal quality. Perform leak tests with inverted samples or pressure fixtures.

• Coding and labeling

  • Confirm correct batch codes, date formats, and label placement. Vision systems help, but human verification at set intervals is essential.

Microbiology and Stability Controls

• Microbiological testing

  • Perform total aerobic count and yeast/mold checks on water and selected batches.
  • Pathogen absence testing for specific risk profiles.

• Preservative efficacy testing (challenge tests)

  • Conducted in development or periodically to verify preservative systems are effective.

• Accelerated stability and compatibility

  • Freeze-thaw cycles, 40 C storage, and centrifuge tests detect potential failures early.

Documentation and Deviations

• Batch records and logbooks

  • Record every material lot, process parameter, and check result. If not documented, it did not happen.

• Nonconformance and CAPA

  • Quarantine suspect goods, investigate root causes, and document corrective actions.

• Traceability

  • Ensure every unit is traceable back to raw materials, line, and operator, supporting rapid recalls if needed.

An operator who is proactive about quality protects consumers and the brand. That is the true craft of the role.

Standard Work: SOPs, Batch Records, and Digital Tools

Operating discipline translates complex processes into reliable output.

• SOP adherence

  • Follow step-by-step instructions for setup, start-up, running, sampling, cleaning, and shutdown.

• Batch records

  • Tick boxes are not enough. Record actual values, times, and initials. Capture deviations with clarity.

• Electronic systems

  • MES: guides setups, enforces component matches, and logs online checks.
  • ERP (such as SAP): manages inventory, reservations, and work orders.
  • QMS: holds change control, training records, and CAPAs.

• Calibration and maintenance coordination

  • Verify that scales, torque testers, thermometers, viscometers, and coders are within calibration.
  • Raise work orders promptly for faults. Document temporary workarounds.

The payoff of this rigor is fewer surprises, lower waste, and steady output that makes planning and logistics smoother.

Real-World Troubleshooting Scenarios and Fixes

Even with the best preparation, lines stop. The difference between a beginner and a pro is response time and first-time-right fixes. Here are common scenarios with practical responses.

1) Foaming causes underfills on a wash-off gel

• Symptoms: bubbles in the product, erratic fills, spillage around nozzles.
• Likely causes: too high shear in the tank, product too cold, filler speed too aggressive, nozzle too high.
• Fixes:
  • Reduce agitator speed and allow rest time for degassing.
  • Slightly increase product temperature within spec to reduce viscosity.
  • Lower the nozzle closer to the container and enable suck-back.
  • Install anti-foam baffles on the hopper; consider a low-foam surfactant if reformulation is possible.

2) Label misalignment on round bottles

• Symptoms: label creeping upward, skewed application, wrinkles.
• Likely causes: bad wrap belt tension, backing paper slip, bottle diameter variation.
• Fixes:
  • Recalibrate wrap belt speed match to conveyor.
  • Clean rollers and remove glue residue.
  • Switch to a different label roll with verified core and liner specs.
  • Use a vision camera to auto-reject and alarm if drift occurs.

3) Dripping after piston fills on viscous cream

• Symptoms: stringing and tailing, product buildup on caps.
• Likely causes: worn piston seals, poor suck-back timing, nozzle orifice too small.
• Fixes:
  • Replace piston seals and O-rings.
  • Increase suck-back volume and delay fractionally.
  • Fit larger nozzles and adjust fill acceleration curve.

4) Induction seal failures on PET jars

• Symptoms: loose foil, leaks during transport tests.
• Likely causes: incompatible foil-liner, low induction power, cap thread tolerance issues.
• Fixes:
  • Validate foil-cap-jar stack-up with supplier.
  • Increase induction power and slow conveyor under the sealer within spec.
  • Verify cap torque is consistent; replace faulty capping chuck if needed.

5) Perfume filling in ATEX area trips safety interlocks

• Symptoms: line stops, alarm indicates static discharge risk.
• Likely causes: poor grounding, damaged bonding cable, humidity too low.
• Fixes:
  • Confirm bonding of totes, pumps, and frames.
  • Replace or repair damaged grounding straps.
  • Increase humidity within the ATEX room if permitted by SOP.

Document each incident and countermeasure. Add the event to downtime codes and propose preventive actions in the next continuous improvement meeting.

Changeovers, Cleaning, and Allergen Control

Operators own fast but thorough changeovers. They are a major lever of line efficiency and product safety.

• Line clearance

  • Remove prior components and WIP. Check printers are reset to the new code. Use a second-person verification.

• CIP and manual cleaning

  • Follow validated cleaning recipes. For sticky waxes or silicones, use heated flushes.
  • Swab tests or rinse samples may be required to confirm cleanliness.

• Allergen and fragrance control

  • Maintain a matrix of fragrance families and allergens. Plan campaigns to minimize risk and cleaning time.
  • Use dedicated scoops and utensils per allergen class.

• SMED principles for speed

  • Pre-stage parts, use quick-release fittings, and standardize nozzle heights.
  • Convert internal steps to external where safe.

A disciplined changeover avoids cross-contamination, labeling errors, and needless downtime.

Efficiency and Continuous Improvement: KPIs Operators Own

Operators are the guardians of both quality and productivity. Key metrics include:

• OEE (Overall Equipment Effectiveness)

  • Availability: cut unplanned stops and reduce changeover time.
  • Performance: run at rated speeds where product and quality allow.
  • Quality: reduce rejects through tighter process control.

• First pass yield (FPY)

  • The percentage of units that pass without rework. Track root causes of rejects and target them systematically.

• Scrap and waste rates

  • Monitor product loss at start-up and end-of-run. Use flush or prime procedures to minimize loss.

• Right-first-time paperwork

  • Zero corrections is the aim. Clear records speed release and audit readiness.

• Safety leading indicators

  • Near-miss reports, 5S audits, and corrective actions closed on time.

Simple operator-led improvements, from a better torque check sheet to a nozzle quick-swap kit, can yield big gains. Share wins across shifts so benefits stick.

Soft Skills That Make Operators Stand Out

Technical skill matters, but soft skills make a high-performing operator indispensable.

• Attention to detail

  • Spot a misprint, hear a bearing squeal, notice an odor shift before a failure cascades.

• Communication

  • Give crisp handovers. Escalate early with facts and possible causes.

• Teamwork

  • Help adjacent stations, cover breaks, and support quality or maintenance without silos.

• Resilience

  • Keep calm during alarms. Follow the process and avoid shortcuts that compromise safety or quality.

• Continuous learning

  • Embrace new SKUs and technologies. Volunteer for cross-training.

These traits are as valuable to employers as machine proficiency.

Shifts, Pay, and Employers in Romania: What to Expect

Romania has a growing FMCG and cosmetics ecosystem, with opportunities in Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Timisoara, and Iasi. Compensation varies by location, skill, and shift pattern. The ranges below are typical guidance based on recent market data and ELEC placements.

Common shift patterns

• 3-shift rotation: 7:00-15:00, 15:00-23:00, 23:00-7:00
• 4-on/4-off or continental shifts for high-volume sites
• Day shifts for pilot plants or specialized compounding

Allowances often include:

• Night shift premium: typically 15-25% of base hourly rate
• Overtime: 75-100% premium depending on day and policy
• Weekend and holiday enhancements per the Romanian Labor Code

Salary ranges in RON and EUR (net monthly take-home)

Note: EUR conversions assume 1 EUR = 4.9-5.0 RON and are approximate.

• Entry-level cosmetic products operator

  • 3,200 - 4,200 RON net per month
  • Approximately 650 - 850 EUR net

• Experienced operator or line technician

  • 4,500 - 6,500 RON net per month
  • Approximately 920 - 1,330 EUR net

• Shift leader or line supervisor

  • 6,000 - 8,500 RON net per month
  • Approximately 1,230 - 1,750 EUR net

Gross monthly salaries will be higher than the figures above; pay packages vary by employer and benefits.

City-by-city examples

• Bucharest

  • High concentration of distributors, brand offices, and contract packers. Pay tends to be at the top of the ranges due to cost of living.
  • Typical employers: multinational distributors with local packaging partners, third-party logistics with light co-packing, and Romanian brand owners with filling lines.

• Cluj-Napoca

  • Historic hub for cosmetics manufacturing and home to well-known Romanian brands and suppliers.
  • Typical employers: established cosmetics manufacturers, contract manufacturers, and packaging suppliers serving national brands.

• Timisoara

  • Strong industrial base and access to Western Europe routes. Mix of FMCG factories and packaging specialists.
  • Typical employers: regional contract manufacturers, packaging converters, and co-packers supporting cross-border brands.

• Iasi

  • Emerging FMCG and logistics location with university talent in chemistry and engineering.
  • Typical employers: growing manufacturers, regional distributors, and co-packing operations.

Common benefits and allowances in Romania

• Meal tickets (tichete de masa)
• Transport allowance or company shuttle
• Private health insurance or clinic subscriptions
• Annual medical checks and PPE provided
• Paid training for GMP, ISO 22716, and HSE
• Performance bonuses tied to OEE, FPY, or safety targets

Candidates with specialized skills, such as ATEX area experience or advanced troubleshooting on servo-driven labelers, can often command the higher end of the range. Language skills in Romanian are essential; English is a plus in multinational environments.

Career Pathways and Training to Invest In

Operators build strong, transferable skills. With experience and targeted training, advancement options include:

• Senior operator or line leader

  • Own a complete packaging cell or compounding bay and mentor new staff.

• Maintenance technician

  • Specialize in mechatronics, pneumatics, and servo drives. Close collaboration with OEMs and reliability engineering.

• Quality control technician

  • Move into the lab for physical-chemical and microbiology testing. Requires comfort with instruments and documentation.

• Process technician or engineer support

  • Tune mixing parameters, scale up pilot formulas, and drive yield improvements.

• EHS coordinator

  • Lead safety programs, risk assessments, and ATEX compliance where applicable.

• Planning or warehouse coordination

  • Transition skills in traceability, inventory control, and ERP to supply chain roles.

Certifications and training that help

• ISO 22716 Cosmetics GMP fundamentals
• HACCP-style risk assessment adapted for cosmetics processes
• ATEX awareness for flammables and static control
• Forklift and powered industrial truck certifications
• First aid and fire marshal training
• 5S, SMED, and basic Six Sigma Yellow Belt
• Instrument basics: pH meters, viscometers, torque testers, and checkweighers

Blending on-the-job learning with formal courses accelerates progression and pay growth.

A Walkthrough Day: Minute-by-Minute on a Day Shift

Consider a day shift running a 250 ml shampoo bottle on a high-speed line.

• 06:45 - Arrive early

  • Change into PPE, review the plan, and scan the whiteboard for open actions.

• 07:00 - Shift briefing

  • Supervisors share targets: 28,000 units before lunch, one changeover at 13:00, watch for label skew that tripped yesterday.

• 07:10 - Line readiness

  • Confirm guards and interlocks. Walk the line: filler, capper, sealer, labeler, case packer, and checkweigher all powered and in idle.

• 07:20 - First article checks

  • Run 10 units through slowly. Check fill volume, torque, label placement, seal integrity, and code clarity.
  • Record results in MES. QC signs off the start-up sample.

• 07:40 - Ramping to speed

  • Increase conveyor speed in steps. Monitor reject bins and vibration. Listen for chatter at the capper.

• 08:30 - In-process checks

  • Weigh a sample set, run a torque test, and verify label alignment using the vision system trend.

• 09:15 - Minor stoppage

  • Nozzle 3 dripping. Replace the seal kit, purge air, and re-verify fills.

• 10:30 - Housekeeping and 5S

  • Quick wipe-down of accumulation tables. Remove empty pallets and stretch wrap. Keep aisles clear.

• 11:15 - Pre-changeover prep

  • Stage new labels, caps, and a new bottle size. Print the new code plates. Gather toolkits and quick-change parts.

• 12:00 - Lunch break

• 13:00 - Changeover starts

  • Stop and lockout machines as required. Swap star-wheels, guide rails, and nozzles. Adjust labeler heads for the smaller bottle.

• 13:45 - Line clearance and QA check

  • Verify all old components are removed and bins are empty. QC reviews and signs line clearance.

• 14:00 - New product start-up

  • Repeat first article checks. Small tweak to label squeeze to eliminate micro-wrinkles.

• 14:40 - Final hour push

  • Run at steady speed. Track OEE on the board and call out if stoppages threaten the target.

• 15:00 - Handover

  • Document performance, issues, spare parts used, and pending checks for the next shift.

This disciplined rhythm is typical, whether the site is in Bucharest or Cluj-Napoca, or in a neighboring EU state.

How to Get Hired: CV Tips and Interview Prep for Operator Roles

A focused application can lift you above the pack.

What to highlight on your CV

• Equipment families you have run

  • Emulsifiers, piston fillers, tube crimpers, labelers with vision systems, induction sealers, and checkweighers.

• Quality systems and training

  • ISO 22716, GLP basics, deviation handling, and electronic batch records.

• Measurable achievements

  • Reduced changeover time from 60 to 35 minutes by standardizing nozzle setups.
  • Improved FPY by 3% by tightening torque checks and retraining the team.

• Safety contributions

  • Led a 5S zone. Reported 10 near-misses with corrective actions implemented.

• Flexibility and teamwork

  • Cross-trained to cover compounding and packaging. Supported maintenance on planned PMs.

Interview questions you should be ready to answer

• Describe a time you solved a persistent line stoppage. What did you test and in what order?
• How do you verify you have the correct components at start-up?
• What steps do you take when you discover a labeling error 2 hours into a run?
• Walk me through a safe changeover routine on a capper.
• How do you respond if you suspect contamination in a compounding tank?

Prepare concrete examples. Speak in numbers: downtime minutes avoided, defect rate reduced, or batches released without deviation.

Where to find roles in Romania

• Bucharest: strong demand in packaging and logistics hubs.
• Cluj-Napoca: manufacturing roles at established cosmetics producers.
• Timisoara: FMCG and co-packing with growth tied to Western European supply chains.
• Iasi: expanding ops and an attractive market for entry-level operators with chemistry or technical schooling.

Partner with a specialized recruiter like ELEC for access to roles that are not always advertised, interview coaching, and salary guidance.

Safety First: Everyday Hazards and How Operators Control Them

Cosmetics may feel benign, but production has real hazards.

• Chemical exposure

  • Fragrances, solvents, acids, and bases. Control with SDS awareness, proper PPE, local exhaust ventilation, and spill kits.

• Flammable atmospheres

  • Ethanol-rich processes require ATEX controls, grounding, and no sources of ignition.

• Mechanical hazards

  • Pinch points at cappers and cartoners. Respect interlocks and LOTO procedures.

• Ergonomics

  • Repetitive tasks and lifting. Use lift assists, rotate tasks, and set correct working heights.

• Microbiological risk

  • Handle preservative concentrates carefully. Maintain hygiene to prevent product contamination.

Regular safety drills, toolbox talks, and visible leadership keep risk low and awareness high.

The Human Side: What Makes the Work Rewarding

Operators take pride in tangible outcomes. You see the results of your skill on store shelves. You contribute to products that make people feel good. The work is team-based, dynamic, and never dull. Success days feel like flow: the hum of a balanced line, the rhythm of in-process checks, and the satisfaction of meeting targets with zero defects.

Call to Action: Build Your Career With ELEC

If this day-in-the-life resonates with you, ELEC can help you take the next step. Whether you are entering cosmetics from general manufacturing, moving toward a line leader role, or relocating within Romania or the wider EMEA region, our recruiters match your skills with the right employer and coach you for success.

• Email us your CV and include the machines, systems, and KPIs you know best.
• Ask for our current openings in Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Timisoara, and Iasi.
• Request a salary benchmarking call to understand your market value.

Your next shift could be the start of a strong, well-paid career in a sector that keeps growing.

Frequently Asked Questions

1) What education do I need to become a cosmetic products operator?

Most employers look for a high school diploma with a technical or vocational focus. A post-secondary certificate in mechanics, mechatronics, chemistry, or process technology is a plus. Hands-on training on the line matters most; employers invest in SOP and GMP training for new hires.

2) How is a cosmetics operator different from a pharmaceutical operator?

Both follow strict GMP, but cosmetics operate under ISO 22716 and the EU Cosmetics Regulation rather than pharmaceutical GMP. Cleanliness and quality checks are rigorous, but environmental classifications are generally less stringent than pharmaceuticals. Documentation and traceability are still essential, and many skills transfer well between sectors.

3) Is the job physically demanding?

There is moderate physical work: standing for most of the shift, moving materials, and making mechanical adjustments. Good sites provide lift assists, ergonomic stations, and job rotation. Fitness and safe lifting practices help you avoid strain.

4) What shift patterns should I expect in Romania?

Most high-volume sites run 3 shifts or continental patterns. Expect night shift rotations unless you work in compounding or on pilot lines that run days. Night and weekend work often come with premiums.

5) I am sensitive to fragrances. Can I still work in cosmetics manufacturing?

Possibly, depending on your sensitivity and the area. Some roles deal more with unscented bases, while others handle concentrated fragrances or alcohols. Discuss accommodations with the employer and undergo a medical assessment if needed. PPE, local exhaust, and proper handling minimize exposure, but fragrance work may still be challenging for highly sensitive individuals.

6) How fast can I progress and increase my salary?

With solid performance and cross-training, many operators move to senior roles within 18-36 months. Demonstrating troubleshooting ability, quality discipline, and leadership potential accelerates progress. Pay can rise 20-40% over early career stages, especially if you can cover multiple lines or shifts.

7) What languages do I need?

Romanian is essential for safety and teamwork on the shop floor. English helps in multinational sites for SOPs, training materials, and vendor manuals. Some employers value Hungarian or German near border regions, but they are not commonly required.