Electrical Trade Unions: A Country-by-Country Guide

Introduction

Relocating as a professional electrician is both a career leap and a life decision. If you are currently working in Global and considering a move to Romania, you will want clarity on labor rights, union support, certification requirements, and the real-world steps to build a successful career on the ground. Romania offers a compelling mix for skilled electricians: rising demand across construction, industrial automation, and renewable energy; EU labor protections; competitive salaries relative to the cost of living; and a lifestyle that balances modern city amenities with accessible nature and close-knit communities.

This guide blends two critical dimensions: a practical, Romania-focused relocation blueprint and a country-by-country overview of electrical trade unions and worker rights. You will learn how unions operate, the benefits of membership, and how Romania compares to other European markets. You will also find actionable steps to validate your qualifications (including ANRE authorization), navigate visas and work permits, select the right city for your specialty, and integrate into Romanian workplace culture.

Note: This guide is for information only and not legal advice. Always verify the latest rules with Romanian authorities, your prospective employer, and union organizations.

Why Romania?

Romania has emerged as a promising destination for electricians who want European Union protections without the high price tags of Western European capitals. Here is why it stands out:

EU membership and labor standards: Romania is an EU member state, which means EU directives on worker safety, product standards (including low voltage and EMC), and non-discrimination apply. This creates a predictable regulatory environment for licensed electricians.
Competitive salaries relative to cost of living: While salaries may be lower than Germany or the Netherlands, Romania's housing, transportation, and daily costs are substantially lower. The result is a favorable savings potential, especially outside prime central districts in cities like Bucharest and Cluj-Napoca.
Strong demand for electricians: New residential and commercial construction, robust industrial expansion, and a rising wave of renewable energy investments all drive demand for qualified electricians with ANRE authorization.
Gateway to broader European opportunities: Working in Romania gives you EU project exposure, standards familiarity (such as SR EN 60364 and the EU Low Voltage Directive), and connections with multinational employers operating across the region.
Quality of life: Romania offers vibrant urban centers, a growing tech ecosystem, modern retail and healthcare in major cities, and easy access to nature. Expect friendly communities, straightforward travel within the Schengen Area for tourism once you hold Romanian residency, and a balanced lifestyle.

Job Market Overview

Romania's electrical job market covers the full spectrum of trades, from residential installation to advanced industrial automation. Key sectors and roles include:

Residential and Commercial Construction

New-build wiring and renovations: Installations, panel boards, grounding and bonding, conduit and cable trays, lighting, and smart systems in apartments, single-family homes, office buildings, and retail spaces.
Typical employers: Local electrical contractors, national construction firms, and building maintenance companies.
Hotspots: Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Timisoara, Iasi, Brasov, Constanta.

Industrial Wiring and Automation

Factories and logistics facilities: Three-phase distribution, MCCs, motor controls, PLCs, VFDs, instrumentation, and preventive maintenance.
Employers: Multinational manufacturers, automotive suppliers, FMCG plants, industrial parks, and integrators.
Hotspots: Timisoara (automotive and electronics), Cluj-Napoca (industrial parks), Iasi (manufacturing), Ploiesti (oil and gas adjacent industries), Pitesti (automotive).

Renewable Energy Systems

Solar PV: Residential, commercial rooftops, and utility-scale farms. Romania's favorable solar potential and EU decarbonization targets are accelerating projects.
Wind: Onshore wind farms require HV connections, substation work, and grid integration expertise.
Employers: Renewable energy developers, EPC contractors, O&M firms, and grid operators.
Hotspots: Dobrogea region for wind; solar across southern and western Romania, plus peri-urban areas near major cities.

Smart Building and Low-Voltage Systems

Building management systems (BMS), access control, CCTV, fire detection, data cabling, and IoT sensors.
Employers: Systems integrators, facility management providers, and large construction contractors.
Hotspots: New commercial developments in Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Timisoara.

Public Infrastructure and Utilities

Street lighting upgrades, substation expansions, grid modernization, and public facility retrofits.
Employers: Municipal contractors, distribution network operators, and utilities.
Hotspots: Urban centers nationwide, especially where EU-funded infrastructure works are underway.

In practice, electricians with experience in EU standards, safety protocols, and documentation (testing, commissioning, and as-built records) are especially competitive. Employers value ANRE authorization and proven track records with renewable systems, industrial control, or complex commercial installations.

Legal Requirements (Visas and Work Permits for Global Citizens)

If you are not an EU/EEA or Swiss citizen, you will need authorization to live and work in Romania. The process is structured but manageable, especially if you have an employer willing to sponsor you.

1) Get a Job Offer

Most non-EU electricians secure a job offer first. Your employer then initiates the work authorization process.
Ensure your contract clearly states position, salary, hours, benefits, and location(s) of work.

2) Employer Applies for Work Authorization

Romanian employers apply to the General Inspectorate for Immigration (Inspectoratul General pentru Imigrari - IGI) for your work authorization.
Documentation typically includes proof that the role cannot be filled locally, your qualifications, clean criminal record (from your current country of residence), and valid passport copies.
Work permit types include standard employment, seasonal, and highly skilled. Electricians typically fall under standard employment unless filling a highly specialized or supervisory role.
Annual quotas may apply. Employers familiar with international hires will navigate this efficiently.

3) Long-Stay Employment Visa (D/AM)

Once the work authorization is issued, you apply for the long-stay employment visa (type D/AM) at a Romanian consulate in your country of residence.
You generally have 60 days from the authorization date to apply. Expect to submit your employment contract, proof of accommodation, medical insurance, and legalized translations of qualifications.
Visa processing times vary but plan for several weeks.

4) Residence Permit (Single Permit)

After arriving in Romania with your D/AM visa, you apply for a residence permit (single permit for work and stay) through IGI, typically within 30 days of entry.
Your residence card will be tied to your employment. Renewals are possible as long as you maintain a valid contract.

5) EU Blue Card (Optional, When Eligible)

If you meet higher salary and qualification thresholds, you might qualify for an EU Blue Card. Electricians may qualify if hired into higher responsibility roles and their salary meets the threshold (often a multiple of the national average gross wage). For most hands-on technician roles, the standard work permit is more common.

For EU/EEA/Swiss Citizens

No visa or work permit is required. You should register your residence if staying beyond 3 months and follow ANRE requirements for authorization where applicable.

Tip: Keep all documents notarized and translated into Romanian as required. Your employer or a relocation specialist can help coordinate translations, apostilles, and police clearance certificates.

Certification & License Recognition

Romania treats electrical work seriously, and proper authorization is not optional. Your path involves both validating your training and obtaining the appropriate Romanian authorization for the work you will perform.

ANRE Authorization

The national authority for energy regulation, ANRE (Autoritatea Nationala de Reglementare in Energie), authorizes electricians to perform electrical work legally in Romania. ANRE issues authorizations by grade and scope, typically designated I to IV, often with additional categories that cover design, execution, and voltage ranges (low, medium, high). The exact structure and requirements evolve with regulatory updates, but the core principles remain:

Purpose: To ensure that only qualified electricians perform electrical installations, maintenance, commissioning, and related tasks in line with Romanian and EU standards.
Scope and grades: ANRE grades generally reflect complexity and responsibility. Lower grades cover basic low-voltage work, while higher grades cover design, verification, and higher voltage systems. Categories commonly distinguish between design/verification and execution/installation functions.
Prerequisites: Technical education (vocational school, college, or university) and relevant work experience. Non-Romanian credentials must be translated and may require equivalency recognition.
Exams and renewals: Authorization usually involves exams, practical assessment, or documented experience. Licenses are time-limited and require periodic renewal, including proof of continued practice and training.

You should confirm the current grade definitions, documentation, and exam schedules directly with ANRE or through an employer familiar with the process. Many companies sponsor employees through the ANRE authorization pathway as part of onboarding.

Romanian Standards and EU Directives

Romanian standards: For building installations, Romania aligns with SR EN 60364 and national norms such as Normativ I7 for low-voltage installations in buildings (I7/2011 as widely cited; check the latest revision). Expect comprehensive requirements on circuit design, protection, RCD use, earthing, and testing.
EU Low Voltage Directive (2014/35/EU): Applies to electrical equipment within certain voltage limits; Romania implements this directive in national law. As an electrician, you should ensure installed equipment carries appropriate conformity markings and documentation.
EU EMC Directive (2014/30/EU) and ATEX (2014/34/EU, for explosive atmospheres): Relevant in industrial environments, especially where machinery and hazardous locations are involved.
Tool and material conformity: Tools and components must be CE-marked and conform to applicable standards. Imported tools should come with compliance documentation.

Recognition of Non-Romanian Qualifications

Document your training: Keep your diplomas, trade certifications, and transcripts. Provide employment references specifying duties, voltage levels, and types of systems handled.
Translation and legalization: Use sworn translators for Romanian translations. Depending on your country, documents may need an apostille or consular legalization.
Equivalency: Academic diploma recognition is typically handled by CNRED (the National Center for Recognition and Equivalence of Diplomas) for higher education. For vocational qualifications, the National Qualifications Authority (ANC) or specific authorities may be involved. Your employer and ANRE will guide the exact route.
Gap training: If your experience is strong but formal documentation is limited, your employer may propose supervised practice and training leading to the appropriate ANRE grade.

Safety Certifications and Specialized Authorizations

Safety training: Employers in Romania must provide SSM (Securitate si Sanatate in Munca) training and maintain records. You may also need specific certifications for working at height, confined spaces, or hot works depending on the site.
Specialized roles: High-voltage, substation, and renewable energy commissioning roles sometimes require additional internal certifications, OEM training (e.g., inverter or turbine manufacturers), and site-specific permits to work.

Salary & Benefits

Salaries vary by city, sector, and your authorization level. Romania pays competitive wages relative to living costs, with strong potential for overtime and project-based bonuses.

Typical Salary Ranges (Gross per Month)

Entry-level or junior electrician: 4,500 - 7,000 RON (approximately 900 - 1,400 EUR)
Experienced low-voltage electrician (residential/commercial): 6,500 - 10,000 RON (approximately 1,300 - 2,000 EUR)
Industrial electrician/automation technician: 8,500 - 14,000 RON (approximately 1,700 - 2,800 EUR)
Site supervisor/foreman or specialized HV roles: 10,000 - 18,000 RON (approximately 2,000 - 3,600 EUR)

Note: Romania applies social contributions and income tax to gross wages. Net pay depends on deductions. Romania has a flat 10% personal income tax rate, but employee social contributions are significant; discuss net take-home pay with your employer.

City-Based Variations

Bucharest: Highest salary bands; also higher living costs. Industrial and large commercial projects pay well. International employers often based here.
Cluj-Napoca: Competitive salaries due to strong construction and tech ecosystems; active commercial developments.
Timisoara: Robust industrial sector (automotive and electronics), strong demand for automation and maintenance electricians.
Iasi: Growing construction and industrial base; slightly lower costs and salaries than Bucharest or Cluj-Napoca.

Overtime, Allowances, and Common Benefits

Overtime: Typically paid at premium rates as per the Labor Code and company policy. Confirm rates and limits in your contract.
Meal vouchers: Many employers offer meal vouchers (tichete de masa), commonly 35 - 40 RON per working day.
Travel and per diem: For site work outside your home city, expect per diem allowances and covered accommodation.
PPE and tools: Employers should provide appropriate PPE. Clarify tool policies; many Romanian employers supply major tools and testing equipment.
Training support: Good employers partially or fully fund ANRE authorization renewals, safety training, and OEM courses.

Cost of Living

Romania provides a favorable cost-of-living profile. Your exact budget depends on city choice and lifestyle.

Housing (Monthly Rent)

Bucharest: 1-bedroom apartment
- City center: 600 - 900 EUR
- Outside center: 400 - 650 EUR
Cluj-Napoca: 1-bedroom apartment
- City center: 500 - 800 EUR
- Outside center: 400 - 600 EUR
Timisoara: 1-bedroom apartment
- City center: 400 - 600 EUR
- Outside center: 300 - 500 EUR
Iasi: 1-bedroom apartment
- City center: 350 - 550 EUR
- Outside center: 300 - 450 EUR

Utilities and Essentials

Utilities (electricity, heating, cooling, water, trash) for a 1-bedroom: 80 - 150 EUR per month (seasonal variation for heating)
Internet (fiber widely available): 7 - 15 EUR per month
Mobile phone plan: 6 - 15 EUR per month (SIM-only)

Transportation

Public transport monthly pass: 8 - 20 EUR depending on city
Taxi and ride-hailing (Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Timisoara, Iasi): Affordable compared to Western Europe
Car ownership: Fuel and insurance are reasonable; parking varies by city center

Groceries and Dining

Groceries: Competitive prices; discount chains and local markets offer value
Eating out: A casual restaurant meal often ranges 7 - 15 EUR; coffee 2 - 3 EUR

Example Monthly Budget (Single, Bucharest)

Rent (outside center 1-bedroom): 550 EUR
Utilities + Internet + Mobile: 160 EUR
Food and household: 250 - 350 EUR
Transport: 15 EUR
Miscellaneous/entertainment: 100 - 150 EUR
Total: Approximately 1,075 - 1,225 EUR

This budget can be lower in Timisoara or Iasi and potentially higher in prime central areas of Bucharest or Cluj-Napoca.

Cultural Integration

Romania is welcoming and practical. Getting comfortable with daily life and work culture will help you thrive.

Language Basics

Romanian is a Romance language. Basic phrases and numbers are quick wins. In major cities, many colleagues will speak English, especially in international firms.
Learn construction and electrical vocabulary in Romanian to improve safety communications on site. Employers may sponsor language classes.

Workplace Culture

Punctuality and preparation are valued.
Safety and documentation matter: risk assessments, permits to work, daily toolbox talks, and sign-offs are common in reputable firms.
Hierarchies exist, but teams are collaborative. Show initiative, document your work, and ask process-related questions early.
Professional courtesy: Use titles and polite forms initially; first names are common once relationships are established.

Personal Tax and Administration

If you are employed locally, payroll will typically handle your tax and social contributions. Keep copies of your contract, payslips, and residence permit.
Set up a local bank account after arrival. Many banks offer English-language services in major cities.

Practical Steps to Relocate

Use this step-by-step roadmap to streamline your move.

Research roles and employers

Identify your target city based on your specialty: Bucharest for large commercial projects, Timisoara for industrial, Cluj-Napoca for tech-driven projects and commercial builds, Iasi for a balanced cost-to-opportunity profile.
Shortlist employers: electrical contractors, construction companies, industrial facilities, and renewable energy developers.

Prepare your documents

CV in English and, if possible, Romanian. Highlight voltage experience, ANRE-equivalent authorizations, testing/commissioning, and safety certifications.
Diplomas, trade certifications, references, and detailed project lists. Translate and legalize as required.

Interview and offer

Clarify scope of work: low-voltage vs. medium/high-voltage, design vs. execution, residential vs. industrial.
Confirm salary as gross and net figures, overtime rules, allowances, and who pays for ANRE fees and renewals.

Employer applies for work authorization

Provide required documents promptly. Track timelines to meet visa application windows.

Apply for D/AM employment visa

Book your consular appointment. Submit your contract, proof of accommodation, insurance, and criminal record certificate.

Arrive and settle

Apply for your residence card (single permit). Set up a bank account, mobile number, and long-term housing.

Start ANRE authorization process (if not already authorized)

Enroll for the appropriate grade exam/training with your employer's support. Gather experience logs and references.

Join a union and understand your rights

Identify the relevant union at your workplace or sector. Ask HR or colleagues for the local union contact.
Review your collective agreement for pay scales, overtime premiums, leave, and safety provisions.

Keep learning

Explore specialized training: PV installation and commissioning, EV charging, BMS integration, PLC programming.
Stay current on standards and Romanian norms.

Electrical Trade Unions and Worker Rights: Romania and Comparisons

Understanding unions is central to protecting your rights, negotiating fair pay, and ensuring safe worksites. Here is how unions operate in Romania and how the landscape compares to other countries where electricians commonly work.

Romania: Structure, Membership, and Benefits

Legal foundation: Romanian law recognizes the right to form and join trade unions. Employees, regardless of nationality, can join as long as they are legally employed.
Levels of representation: Unions may exist at the company level, grouped in federations by sector, and confederations at the national level.
Sectors relevant to electricians:
- Energy and utilities: Company-level unions and sector federations represent workers in distribution and generation.
- Construction and installations: Trade unions represent electricians employed by contractors and construction firms, often under sectoral or company collective agreements.
What unions typically negotiate:
- Base wages, allowances, overtime premiums
- Working time arrangements and shift rotations
- Safety standards, PPE provisions, and training
- Leave policies, meal vouchers, and other benefits
Joining a union:
- Ask HR or site management which union represents your workplace.
- Membership typically involves a monthly fee deducted from payroll.
Collective agreements:
- Romania allows collective bargaining at company or sector level. Read your collective agreement for wage tables, leave entitlements, and site-specific safety rules.
Worker rights under the Labor Code:
- Standard 40-hour work week
- Overtime premiums and limits
- Minimum annual paid leave of at least 20 working days
- Public holidays recognized nationally
- Right to strike following legal procedures
Safety law: Law 319/2006 on health and safety at work. Employers must provide SSM training and risk assessments.

Germany

Unions: IG Metall (industrial electrical), IG BAU (construction). Works councils (Betriebsrat) are common.
Collective agreements (Tarifverträge) set wages and conditions. Electrical workers often fall under metal/electrical or construction agreements.
Benefits: Strong wage floors, paid overtime or time off in lieu, training rights, and robust safety frameworks. High union density in industrial regions.

Austria

Unions: PRO-GE and GPA cover many technical trades; strong sector-level collective agreements.
Benefits: Predictable wage tables, paid training, additional allowances (travel, tools), and generous leave.

Netherlands

Unions: FNV Metaal, CNV Vakmensen. CAO agreements for metal and installation sectors.
Benefits: Well-defined wage scales, allowances for travel and tools, structured apprenticeships, and strict safety compliance (NEN 1010 for installations).

Denmark

Union: Dansk El-Forbund (DEF) specifically represents electricians.
Benefits: High wages, comprehensive training, and strong collective bargaining coverage. English is widely used on international sites.

Sweden

Union: Svenska Elektrikerförbundet (SEF, Elektrikerna).
Benefits: Strong protections, negotiated wage ladders, and high safety culture. Extensive use of permits and lockout/tagout procedures.

Norway

Union: EL og IT Forbundet.
Benefits: Some of the highest wages in Europe for electricians, strict safety enforcement, and allowances for travel and per diem on remote projects.

Ireland

Union: Connect Trade Union (formerly TEEU).
Benefits: Sector agreements define rates, overtime, travel time, and site allowances. ECS and Safe Pass cards are standard on sites.

United Kingdom

Unions: Unite and GMB have strong electrical and construction sections. The Joint Industry Board (JIB) framework sets pay rates and grading; ECS cards prove competence.
Benefits: JIB agreements cover pay, overtime, travel, and subsistence. Safety certifications (CSCS/ECS) are site requirements.

United States

Union: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW).
Benefits: Union locals negotiate strong wage packages, benefits, apprenticeships, and safety training under OSHA rules.

Canada

Union: IBEW locals across provinces.
Benefits: High wages, travel allowances, Red Seal certification portability, and comprehensive training.

Australia

Union: Electrical Trades Union (ETU).
Benefits: Competitive wages, strong site safety culture, and enterprise bargaining agreements with significant allowances.

New Zealand

Union: E tu covers electrical among other trades; project agreements often set pay and conditions.
Benefits: Training pathways, safety enforcement, and negotiated allowances.

Middle East (UAE, Qatar)

Unions: Generally limited or restricted. Employment rights rely on contracts and labor law; public-sector projects may follow strict safety rules, but collective bargaining is not typical.

What This Means for Moving to Romania

Romania sits in the middle of the unionization spectrum. It provides legal protections, allows collective bargaining, and has active sector unions in energy and construction.
Compared with Nordic countries or Germany, negotiated wage floors may be less standardized nationally, but company and sector agreements can be strong, especially with international employers.
As a foreign electrician, join your workplace union when possible, study your collective agreement, and document hours and overtime carefully.

Legal Requirements, Safety, and Codes: Practical Differences to Expect

Voltage and systems: Romania uses 230/400 V, 50 Hz. If you are coming from 120/208 V systems, adjust your design assumptions, conductor sizing, and PPE choices accordingly.
Color codes and wiring methods: Align with SR EN 60364 conventions; verify site-specific standards and client specifications.
RCDs and protection: RCDs (typically 30 mA for socket-outlet circuits) are widely used; check selectivity and coordination with upstream devices.
Documentation: Prepare to provide test reports (insulation resistance, RCD trip times, loop impedance), as-builts, and component compliance evidence.
Tool certification: Use CE-marked tools with conformity documentation; keep calibration logs for test instruments.

Success Tips from Other Expats

Choose your city strategically: If your background is industrial automation, target Timisoara or Ploiesti-area industrial hubs; for commercial and smart buildings, Bucharest and Cluj-Napoca are strong bets.
Confirm ANRE support in your contract: Ask if your employer will sponsor your ANRE preparation and exam fees, and clarify the grade they expect you to achieve.
Ask about overtime and allowances up front: Align expectations on overtime pay, travel time, and per diem rates.
Join the union early: It helps with onboarding, understanding pay scales, and resolving any site issues professionally.
Keep meticulous records: Timesheets, permits, test certificates, and change orders protect you and help with ANRE renewals.
Learn key Romanian phrases: Especially safety terms, numbers, tool names, and directions used on site.
Network: Attend local trade fairs, renewable energy expos, and training sessions. Many jobs spread by word of mouth.

Conclusion and Call to Action

Romania is a practical, opportunity-rich destination for electricians seeking growth, European standards, and favorable living costs. With ANRE authorization, a clear understanding of Romanian standards, and union support, you can secure a stable role in residential, commercial, industrial, or renewable sectors and build a long-term career.

Next steps:

Shortlist Romanian cities and employers that fit your specialization.
Prepare your documents and confirm ANRE pathways with recruiters.
Plan your visa and residence process in tandem with your employer's HR team.
Join the union at your workplace and learn your collective agreement benefits.

If you are ready to move forward, start contacting employers in Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Timisoara, and Iasi. Ask specific questions about ANRE support, safety culture, and project types. The opportunities are here - make them yours.

FAQ

1) Do I need ANRE authorization to work as an electrician in Romania?

Yes. ANRE authorization is required for most categories of electrical work. The authorization is graded by scope and responsibility. Employers often help new hires prepare for exams and gather documentation. You can start in supervised roles while pursuing the appropriate grade, depending on company policy and legal requirements.

2) How do unions help electricians in Romania?

Unions negotiate wages, overtime premiums, allowances, and safety provisions. They provide support if disputes arise, help interpret collective agreements, and can advocate for improved training and work conditions. Foreign workers with legal employment status can join.

3) What are realistic salaries for electricians in Bucharest and Cluj-Napoca?

In Bucharest, experienced electricians often earn 6,500 - 12,000 RON gross per month (about 1,300 - 2,400 EUR), with overtime and allowances on top. In Cluj-Napoca, ranges are similar though sometimes slightly lower depending on project type, typically 6,000 - 11,000 RON gross per month.

4) Is English enough for site work?

English is widely used in multinational firms and on some large sites. However, learning Romanian basics, especially technical and safety vocabulary, will significantly improve communication and safety. Many employers value and support language learning.

5) What is the visa process if I am not an EU citizen?

Your employer applies for work authorization from IGI. Once approved, you apply for a D/AM long-stay employment visa at a Romanian consulate. After arriving in Romania, you apply for a residence permit (single permit) within the legal timeframe. Keep all documents translated and legalized as required.

6) How do Romania's worker rights compare to Germany or the Nordics?

Romania protects core labor rights and allows collective bargaining. Compared to Germany or the Nordics, wage floors and union density may be lower, but protections are meaningful and improving. Joining a union and choosing reputable employers helps ensure strong conditions.

7) Will my existing qualifications from Global be recognized?

Yes, with proper documentation. Diplomas and certificates must be translated and may need legalization. ANRE will determine eligibility for the authorization grade you seek. Employers can guide you through any equivalency steps with CNRED or ANC when needed.

8) Which Romanian cities are best for renewable energy work?

Utility-scale solar projects are active across southern and western Romania and near major cities, while wind remains strong in the Dobrogea region near the Black Sea. Bucharest hosts many EPC headquarters; Cluj-Napoca and Timisoara have active integrators and service firms.

9) What typical benefits should I expect besides salary?

Common benefits include meal vouchers, overtime premiums, travel allowances for remote sites, paid safety training, PPE, and sometimes accommodation on distant projects. Ask about ANRE sponsorship and renewal costs in your offer.

10) Are tools provided by the employer?

PPE and essential testing instruments are often provided. Policies vary on hand tools and specialized equipment. Clarify tool allowances, replacement policies, and calibration schedules before you start.